ARCHAEOLOGY
NEWS
|
DECIPHERING A ROMAN DIPLOMA |
|
by
Doug Ward |
OXFORD, OHIO-For people in the Mediterranean world of the early
centuries A.D., Roman citizenship was a highly coveted prize. The New Testament
book of Acts records that the apostle Paul was apparently proud of his status
as a Roman citizen (Acts
22:28) and once invoked that status to avoid a severe flogging at the hands
of Roman soldiers (Acts 22:23-29).
Acts
22:28 mentions two ways of gaining Roman citizenship. Paul, who hailed from
Tarsus in the Roman province of Cilicia (22:3), inherited citizenship from his
father. In contrast, the commander of the Roman garrison in Jerusalem told Paul
that he had paid a substantial amount of money for that distinction.
A
third way to attain citizenship was through an extended period of military
service. In an Archaeological Institute of America lecture given at Miami
University on November 10, 2009, archaeologist James Russell discussed the
details of this route to citizenship.
Russell, an Emeritus
Professor of Classical, Near Eastern and Religious Studies at the University of
British Columbia, began his lecture by describing the vast extent of the Roman
Empire in the early second century A.D. At that point, the Empire included much
of Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East. With such a large amount of
territory to guard, Rome maintained a standing army of some 300,000 men. About
half of these men were citizens who belonged to one of the Roman legions. The
other half, recruited from around the Empire, were known as auxiliaries.
In
order to attract more of these soldiers, Rome offered citizenship to
auxiliaries who served for at least twenty five years. When an auxiliary was
honorably discharged after twenty five or more years, he received proof of
citizenship in the form of a diploma, which consisted of two inscribed
bronze tablets that were folded together and sealed.
A
diploma's inscription contained quite a bit of data, as Russell went on to
explain. First came the name of the current emperor and the year. Then there
was information about the regiments included in that particular batch of
diplomas. After that were listed the name, hometown, and classification of the
auxiliary. If the auxiliary had a family, the diploma made his marriage a legal
Roman marriage and conferred citizenship upon his wife and children. In that
case, the names of the wife and children were listed on the diploma. If the
soldier was a bachelor, the diploma granted citizenship in advance to the
auxiliary's first wife and any children resulting from that marriage.
|
Two
Soldiers' Stories |
Professor Russell has done archaeological fieldwork for a number of
years on the southern coast of Turkey, in an area that was once part of the
Roman provinces of Cilicia and Lycia/Pamphylia. Over the course of his career,
he has had the opportunity to publish inscriptions from the remains of two
diplomas that were brought to his attention. He discussed both of them during
his lecture.
The
first of these diplomas was found near the ruins of Cebel
Ires, a Roman settlement that was located in the
Taurus Mountains near the modern city of Alanya.
This diploma was discovered by a Turkish laborer who liked to spend his
evenings pursuing the popular pastime of treasure hunting.1
When the laborer showed Russell his find, Russell arranged for its purchase for
the local museum in Alanya.
Because
about three-fourths of this diploma has been found, Russell has been able to
determine quite a bit about its owner's life. This auxiliary was a foot soldier
named Galba who came from the Syrian city of Cyrrhus.
His wife was Pamphylian, and they had two sons, one
of whom was named Valens. His diploma was issued in 138 A.D.
Based
on this information, Russell has surmised that Galba was recruited in around
113 A.D. In that year the emperor Trajan was launching an offensive against the
Parthian Empire, and lots of auxiliaries were needed for this campaign. It
therefore seems likely that Galba's first posting was on the Parthian frontier.
The
Parthian campaign, which started auspiciously for the Romans but then
floundered, lasted for four years. In 117 A.D. or some time thereafter, Galba was
apparently sent to Pamphylia, where he married, settled down, and started a
family. Cebel Ires was near
the border between Pamphylia and Cilicia, so Galba may have part of a group of
soldiers that guarded the border.
A
second diploma fragment came from Kalin Oren in
Cilicia. This one dated from 136 or 137 A.D. and was granted to a foot soldier
named Pappas. The fragment does not include his hometown, but his name provides
a clue. The name Pappas was a common one in Asia Minor, so he may have returned
to his boyhood home after completing his military commitment. No wife's name is
listed-perhaps Pappas was a widower-but he had four sons, two of whom were
named Paulus and Gellius. Paulus and Gellius were familiar Roman names, reflecting Pappas's
desire to become a Roman citizen.
The
diploma fragment indicates that Pappas served in Alexandria, a large and
wealthy city, early in his military career. Later he was sent to Judea,
probably in 132 A.D. when the Bar Kokhba revolt broke
out. So Pappas's last years as an auxiliary would have been the most difficult,
spent in the grueling conditions of the Judean desert. He apparently was
discharged when the war ended, then went home to Cilicia.
Both
Galba and Pappas worked hard for their diplomas, paying for their citizenship
with twenty five years of their lives. They would have treasured their status
as citizens, just as the apostle Paul did.
Paul
knew, though, that there was a prize of infinitely greater value than Roman
citizenship: citizenship in the eternal Kingdom of God. He wrote to the early
Christians in Philippi, "But our citizenship is in heaven. And we eagerly
await a Savior from there, the Lord Jesus Christ, who, by the power that
enables him to bring everything under his control, will transform our lowly
bodies so that they will be like his glorious body" (Phil 3:20-21, NIV). A
place in that Kingdom is the most valuable treasure of all, worth any
sacrifice. In the same letter Paul also wrote, "I want to know Christ and
the power of his resurrection and the fellowship of sharing in his sufferings,
becoming like him in his death, and so, somehow, to attain to the resurrection
from the dead" (Phil 3:10-11).
1For
more on treasure hunting in Turkey, see the article "Archaeologist
Laments Lydian Looting" in Issue 24 of Grace
& Knowledge.
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